High-Energy-Density, Aqueous, Metal-Polyiodide Redox Flow Batteries

ABSTRACT

Improved metal-based redox flow batteries (RFBs) can utilize a metal and a divalent cation of the metal (M 2+ ) as an active redox couple for a first electrode and electrolyte, respectively, in a first half-cell. For example, the metal can be Zn. The RFBs can also utilize a second electrolyte having I − , anions of I x  (for x≧3), or both in an aqueous solution, wherein the I −  and the anions of I x  (for x≧3) compose an active redox couple in a second half-cell.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made with Government support under ContractDE-AC0576RL01830 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. TheGovernment has certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND

High energy density and high energy efficiency are critical qualitiesfor increasing success in renewable clean energy applications. Redoxflow batteries (RFBs) can meet many needs by providing conversionbetween electrical energy and chemical energy. However, RFBs can beassociated with low energy density and high cost due to the lowconcentration of active materials and the use of expensive catalystsand/or membranes. For example, the energy density of a traditionalall-vanadium redox flow battery is in the range of approximately 20-50Wh/L depending on the choice of electrolyte. Traditional zinc-based flowbatteries, such as a Zn—Br flow battery (ZBB), demonstrate slightlyhigher values of energy density. However, the performance of common ZBBsare often limited by their low energy efficiency and short cycling life.Furthermore, the bromine gas is very corrosive and hazardous, leading toserious health and environmental concerns. The low energy density notonly limits the application of flow battery to stationary energystorage, but also increases the form factor and cost of the flowbattery. Based on the absence of RFBs with high energy density and lowcost, there is a need to develop improved flow battery systems.

SUMMARY

Described herein are RFBs utilizing an active redox couple comprising ametal (M) and a divalent cation of the metal (M²⁺) as a first electrodeand first electrolyte, respectively. The RFBs also utilize a secondelectrolyte comprising I⁻, anions of I_(x) (for x≧3), or both in anaqueous solution, wherein the I⁻ and the anions of I_(x) (for x≧3)compose an active redox couple. RFB, as used herein, can refer to asingle cell or a stack of cells, wherein each cell comprises a firsthalf cell, a second half cell, and terminals allowing current to flowinto and out of the cell. Each half cell can comprise an electrodeand/or an electrolyte. A half-cell can further comprise a currentcollector.

Furthermore, this document describes methods for storing electricalenergy in such RFBs. Embodiments described herein can yield high energydensity and high efficiency energy storage. In some instances, theexperimental discharge energy density is greater than 60 Wh/L. Theexperimental discharge energy can even exceed 100 Wh/L. Theelectrochemical activity of M/M²⁺ and the I⁻/anions of I_(x) caneliminate the need for expensive catalysts and/or elevated temperaturesat either of the electrodes.

In one embodiment, a RFB comprises a first electrolyte comprising M²⁺ inan aqueous solution and a first electrode comprising M, wherein M andM²⁺ compose a first active redox couple at a first half-cell. A secondelectrolyte comprises I⁻, anions of I_(x) (for x≧3), or both in theaqueous solution, wherein I⁻ and anions of I_(x) (for x≧3) compose asecond active redox couple at a second half-cell. A membrane orseparator exists between the first and second half-cells. Examples ofmetals can include, but are not limited to, Ga, Fe, Cr, Ti, Zn, andcombinations thereof. In preferred embodiments the metal, M, is Zn.

The first electrode can comprise the metal, M, electrodeposited on aporous conductive material. Examples of porous conductive materials caninclude, but are not limited to, materials comprising conductive carbon,graphite fibers, graphene, and/or metallic materials. Alternatively, Mcan be electrodeposited on a dense solid conductive material. The densesolid conductive material can include, but are not limited to, metallicmaterials and/or conductive carbon materials.

Examples of the membrane can include, but are not limited to,ion-exchange membranes (such as NAFION) and solid-state membranes.Examples of the separator can include, but are not limited to,microporous separators. The separators can comprise polymers or othermaterials. The ability to use a separator is an unexpected benefit due,in part, to the presence of, and compatability with, the aqueoussolution in both half-cells. Furthermore, the lower working potential ofI⁻ and anions of I_(x) (i.e., 0.621 V for x=3) enables the use oflow-cost membranes and relaxes the requirement for expensive sulfonatedtetrafluoroethylene based fluoropolymer-copolymer (e.g., “NAFION”)

In preferred embodiments, the aqueous solution contains substantially noiodine (e.g., I₂), which can tend to precipitate out of solution.Embodiments of the present invention utilize anions of I_(x) (for x≧3),which are soluble. Particular examples of anions of I_(x) (where x≧3)can include, but are not limited to, I₃ ⁻, I₄ ⁻, and I₆ ⁻.Alternatively, anions of I_(x) (where x≧3) can include, but are notlimited to I_(2n+p) ⁻, wherein n and p are positive integers and 1≦p≦4.

In the presence of alkaline iodide, I₂ is predominantly converted toI_(x) ⁻ (where x≧3). For example, I₂ is in equilibrium with I₃ ⁻according to the following chemical equation.

I ₂(s)+I ⁻

I ₃ ⁻ ,K=723±10

where K represents the equilibrium constant. With such a highequilibrium constant, substantially all the I₂ will be transformed intoI₃ ⁻. However, there can be an insignificant amount of I₂ that exists inthe equilibrium system. Often the amount is undetectable. Accordingly,the amount of iodine is negligible and there is substantially no I₂ inthe electrolyte.

Varying the acidity of a negative electrolyte solution can provide anopportunity to expand the voltage window to values approaching 1.9 V.Adjusting the acidity of the negative electrolytes can change thepotential at negative side. With increasing pH values, the potential atthe negative side decreases because of metal oxide (MO) replacing metalions, therefore, leading to enhanced overall voltage. The RFBs describedherein preferably operate in a substantially neutral or alkalineenvironment compared to traditional RFBs. In some embodiments, theaqueous solution can have a pH greater than 3. The result is an increasein the overpotential of H₂/H⁺, which can prevent evolution of hydrogengas at the negative half-cell, and is beneficial to achieve high CEvalue and good cycling performance. In addition, the application of thenear neutral or alkaline electrolytes in this system also reducescorrosion to the components of the RFB due to acidic environments.Moreover, in many instances no additional mineral acids are added. Thereis no need for extra free protons. For example, in preferredembodiments, no HCl, H₂SO₄, HNO₃, etc. needs to be added to the aqueoussolution.

In some embodiments, a conduit can connect the first and secondhalf-cells. A flow controller can permit or restrict flow through theconduit. The conduit and flow controller can facilitate controllableflow of electrolyte from the second half-cell to the first half-cell,wherein the electrolyte from the second half-cell can react with themetal (M). The flow controller can permit or restrict circulationthrough the conduit. Examples of flow controllers can include, but arenot limited to, valves, pumps, manifolds, and flow regulators. Theanions of I_(x) (where x≧3) can oxidize the metal into metal cations andcorresponding anions of I_(x) (where x≧3) is reduced into I⁻. Theelectrolytes at both sides can be recovered to original electrolytes(e.g. aqueous MI₂ solutions).

In some embodiments, a pressure regulation system is used in thecontainers that contain the first and/or second electrolyte to controland adjust the pressure in the headspace of the electrolyte container.The volume of the first and second electrolyte can be controlled andadjusted, and therefore the capacity decay can be regulated, through thepressure regulation.

The purpose of the foregoing summary is to enable the United StatesPatent and Trademark Office and the public generally, especially thescientists, engineers, and practitioners in the art who are not familiarwith patent or legal terms or phraseology, to determine quickly from acursory inspection the nature and essence of the technical disclosure ofthe application. The summary is neither intended to define the inventionof the application, which is measured by the claims, nor is it intendedto be limiting as to the scope of the invention in any way.

Various advantages and novel features of the present invention aredescribed herein and will become further readily apparent to thoseskilled in this art from the following detailed description. In thepreceding and following descriptions, the various embodiments, includingthe preferred embodiments, have been shown and described. Includedherein is a description of the best mode contemplated for carrying outthe invention. As will be realized, the invention is capable ofmodification in various respects without departing from the invention.Accordingly, the drawings and description of the preferred embodimentsset forth hereafter are to be regarded as illustrative in nature, andnot as restrictive.

DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

Embodiments of the invention are described below with reference to thefollowing accompanying drawings.

FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram depicting one embodiment of a flow cellemploying metal (M) and a divalent cation of the metal (M²⁺) as a firstactive redox couple along with I⁻ and anions of I_(x) (for x≧3) as asecond active redox couple according to embodiments of the presentinvention.

FIG. 2 is a cyclic voltammogram obtained using glassy carbon as workingelectrode and Ag/AgCl as reference electrode in a 0.085 M ZnI₂electrolyte solution according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 3 is a plot showing electrochemical performance of a flow cell withNafion 212 as membranes and having a 1.5 M ZnI₂ electrolyte solutionoperated at 20 mA/cm² according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIGS. 4A-4C contains plots showing electrochemical performance of a flowcell with Nafion 212 as membranes and having a 3.5 M ZnI₂ electrolytesolution operated at 20 mA/cm² according to embodiments of the presentinvention. FIG. 4A is the charge/discharge voltage profile. FIG. 4Bshows the flow cell columbic (CE), voltage (VE), and energy efficiencies(EE) over 10 cycles. FIG. 4C demonstrates the specific capacity andenergy density (based on positive electrolyte) throughout 10 cycles.

FIG. 5 is a plot showing electrochemical cycling performance of a flowcell with Nafion 115 as membranes and having a 3.5 M ZnI₂ electrolytesolution operated at 20 mA/cm² over 40 cycles according to embodimentsof the present invention.

FIG. 6 is a plot comparing electrochemical performance (efficiencies)operated at various current densities of a flow cell having a 3.5 M ZnI₂electrolyte solution according to embodiments of the present invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The following description includes the preferred best mode of oneembodiment of the present invention. It will be clear from thisdescription of the invention that the invention is not limited to theseillustrated embodiments but that the invention also includes a varietyof modifications and embodiments thereto. Therefore the presentdescription should be seen as illustrative and not limiting. While theinvention is susceptible of various modifications and alternativeconstructions, it should be understood, that there is no intention tolimit the invention to the specific form disclosed, but, on thecontrary, the invention is to cover all modifications, alternativeconstructions, and equivalents falling within the spirit and scope ofthe invention as defined in the claims.

FIGS. 1-6 show a variety of aspects and/or embodiments of the presentinvention. Referring first to FIG. 1 a schematic diagram depicts a RFB100 employing a metal and a divalent cation of the metal (M²⁺) as afirst active redox couple along with I⁻ and anions of I_(x) (for x≧3) asa second active redox couple according to one embodiment of the presentinvention. The RFB comprises a first half cell 102 separated from asecond half cell 103 by a membrane or separator 107. The two half cellscan be connected to provide an electrical supply for a load 101. Anelectrolyte solution comprising M²⁺ cations and iodine anions isseparated into catholyte and anolyte in the first and second half cells,respectively. A first reservoir 104 can contain a supply of thecatholyte, which can be circulated between the first half cell in acontinuous or batch manner. A second reservoir 105 can contain a supplyof the anolyte, which can be circulated between the second half cell ina continuous or batch manner. The first and second half cells furthercomprise a first graphite felt (GF) electrode plus current collector 108and a second GF electrode plus current collector 109, respectively. Thefirst electrode/current collector 108 further comprises metal (M) thathas been electrodeposited 106 on the surface and/or within pores ofelement 108.

The metal (M) can include, but is not limited to Fe, Cr, Ti, Ga, andcombinations thereof. The electrolytes of such metals can be prepared,for example, from FeI₂, from CrI₂ and/or CrI₃, from TiI₄, GaI₃, andcombinations thereof. In one embodiment, combined metals can comprise analloy or a mixture of metals,

In one embodiment, a RFB was constructed by dissolving zinc acetate(Zn(Ac)₂) in a KI solution to yield an aqueous electrolyte solution. Theelectrolyte solution can alternatively be made by dissolving ZnI₂ in thewater. Other methods can also be suitable. In the first half-cell,graphite felt on which Zn is electrodeposited served as an electrode. Inthe second half-cell, a graphite felt was utilized as an electrode. Asulfonated tetrafluoroethylene based fluoropolymer-copolymer (Nafion212®) was used as a membrane between the half cells. Referring to FIG.2, a plot exhibits the coulombic efficiency (CE), energy efficiency(EE), voltage efficiency (VE), and discharge energy density for a cellhaving 1.5 M ZnI₂ solutions in each half cell and operating at a currentdensity of 20 mA/cm². The specific discharge energy density was greaterthan 60 Wh/L, while the CE, EE, and VE were 99%, 89%, and 88%,respectively.

FIGS. 4A-4C show data for a similar cell having 3.5 M ZnI₂ solutionsoperating at a current density of 20 mA/cm². FIG. 4A shows acharge-discharge curve. FIG. 4B shows the CE, VE, and EE values of thecell versus cycle number. FIG. 4C shows the specific capacity and energydensity values versus cycle numbers. These values are summarized inTable 1 below, along with data for cells comprising ZnI₂ solutionshaving concentrations of 0.5 M, 1.5 M, and 2.5 M.

Concen- Discharge tration energy Charge Discharge of ZnI₂ CE VE EEdensity OCV voltage voltage (mol/L) (%) (%) (%) (Wh/L) (V) (V) (V) 0.599.5 91.3 90.9 33.9 1.43 1.399 1.265 1.5 99.3 88.7 88.2 63.4 1.33 1.3431.185 2.5 99.0 85.7 84.8 98.3 1.285 1.321 1.132 3.5 99.5 77.1 77.5 136.01.270 1.362 1.066

According to the data in Table 1, the discharge energy density increaseswith increasing concentrations of ZnI₂. The discharge energy density forthe cell with 0.5 M ZnI₂ is comparable to that of all-vanadium flowbatteries (VRB). The discharge energy density for the cell with 1.5 MZnI₂ is comparable to traditional zinc-bromide flow batteries. At ZnI₂concentrations of 3.5 M, the discharge energy density is approximately 5times greater than the performance of a VRB. The discharge energydensity can be further increased when the issue of Zn dendrite formationis addressed. For example, at 5 M ZnI₂, the discharge energy density isgreater than 148 Wh/L. The charge voltage, discharge voltage and OCVwere 1.40 V, 0.97 V, and 1.23 V, respectively. The CE, VE, and EE valueswere 99.5, 69.3, and 69.1, respectively.

The impact of Zn dendrite formation can be minimized by using thickmembranes, increasing electrode-to-membrane separation distances, addinganti-dendrite electrolyte additives, and other techniques. For example,referring to FIG. 5, a flow cell having an electrolyte solutioncomprising 3.5 M ZnI₂ exhibited stable cycling for more than 40 cyclesat 20 mA/cm² current density using a thick sulfonatedtetrafluoroethylene based fluoropolymer-copolymer separator (Nafion115®). The CE, VE, and EE were 99%, 76%, and 75%, respectively.

Referring to FIG. 6, efficiencies of a flow cell having 3.5 M ZnI₂ atvarious current densities are shown. The CE is stable at around 99%. TheEE and VE decrease at increasing current densities, because the highcharge/discharge current density can result in increased overpotential.Table 2 summarizes data obtained from the flow cell having 3.5 M ZnI₂ atvarious current densities.

Charge Discharge Discharge Current density OCV voltage voltage energydensity (mA/cm2) (V) (V) (V) (Wh/L) 10 1.240 1.298 1.108 141.5 20 1.2701.362 1.066 136.0 30 1.243 1.416 0.983 125.3

I₂ has a very low solubility in water (around 0.002M at 20° C.).Formation of substantial I₂ will precipitate out from the electrolyte assolid. In some of the embodiments described herein, the batteries andmethods for operation are designed to avoid the oxidation of I⁻ andanions of I_(x) into I₂. No solid precipitation has been observed in theembodiments described herein, indicating there is substantially no I₂formation or that the formation of I₂ is within its very low solubilitylimit.

Other anions of I_(x) are possible and can be in solution with I₃ ⁻ orinstead of I₃ ⁻. For example, further charge (oxidation) of I₃ ⁻ mayresult in polyiodide anions that has more than three iodide ions, suchas I₅ ⁻, and/or I₇ ⁻, and/or polyiodide anions with even more iodideions. In such case, it is preferable that the I_(x) anions are soluble.If the polyiodide anions are soluble without precipitation, they mayoffer higher capacity compared to triiodides (I₃ ⁻).

While a number of embodiments of the present invention have been shownand described, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that manychanges and modifications may be made without departing from theinvention in its broader aspects. The appended claims, therefore, areintended to cover all such changes and modifications as they fall withinthe true spirit and scope of the invention.

We claim:
 1. A redox flow battery (RFB) comprising: a first electrolytecomprising divalent cations of a metal (M²⁺) in an aqueous solution anda first electrode comprising the metal (M), wherein M and M²⁺ compose afirst active redox couple at a first half-cell; a second electrolytecomprising I⁻, anions of I_(x) (x≧3), or both in the aqueous solution,wherein I⁻ and anions of I_(x) compose a second active redox couple at asecond half-cell; and a membrane or separator between the first andsecond half-cells.
 2. The RFB of claim 1, wherein the metal comprises anelement selected from the group consisting of Ga, Fe, Cr, Ti, andcombinations thereof.
 3. The RFB of claim 1, wherein the metal comprisesZn.
 4. The RFB of claim 1, wherein the aqueous solution has a pH greaterthan
 3. 5. The RFB of claim 1, wherein the first electrode comprises themetal (M) on a porous, conductive material.
 6. The RFB of claim 5,wherein the porous conductive material comprises conductive carbon. 7.The RFB of claim 5, wherein the porous conductive material comprisesgraphite fibers.
 8. The RFB of claim 5, wherein the porous conductivematerial comprises graphene.
 9. The RFB of claim 5, wherein the porousconductive material comprises a metallic material.
 10. The RFB of claim1, wherein the first electrode comprises M on a dense solid conductivematerial.
 11. The RFB of claim 10, wherein the dense solid conductivematerial comprises a metallic material.
 12. The RFB of claim 10, whereinthe dense solid conductive material comprises conductive carbonmaterials.
 13. The RFB of claim 1, wherein the membrane comprises anion-exchange membrane.
 14. The RFB of claim 1, wherein the membranecomprises a solid-state membrane.
 15. The RFB of claim 1, wherein theseparator comprises a microporous separator.
 16. The RFB of claim 1,wherein the aqueous solution contains substantially no iodine.
 17. TheRFB of claim 1, wherein the anions of I_(x) comprise I₃ ⁻.
 18. The RFBof claim 1, wherein the anions of I_(x) comprise I₄ ⁻.
 19. The RFB ofclaim 1, wherein the anions of I_(x) comprise I₆ ⁻.
 20. The RFB of claim1, wherein the anions of I_(x) comprise I_(2n+p) ⁻, wherein n and p arepositive integers and 1≧p≧4.
 21. The RFB of claim 1, having an energydensity (based on the positive electrolyte) greater than 60 Wh/L. 22.The RFB of claim 1, further comprising a conduit connecting the firstand second half-cells and a flow controller, wherein electrolyte fromthe second half-cell can circulate through the conduit to the firsthalf-cell to react with the Zn and wherein the flow controller permitsor restricts circulation through the conduit.
 23. A redox flow battery(RFB) comprising: a first electrolyte comprising Zn²⁺ in an aqueoussolution and a first electrode comprising Zn, wherein the Zn and theZn²⁺ compose a first active redox couple at a first half-cell; a secondelectrolyte comprising I⁻, anions of I_(x) (x≧3), or both in the aqueoussolution, wherein the I⁻ and the anions of I_(x) compose a second activeredox couple at a second half-cell; and a membrane or separator betweenthe first and second half-cells; wherein the RFB has an energy density(based on the positive electrolyte) greater than 60 Wh/L and the aqueoussolution contains substantially no iodine.
 24. The RFB of claim 23,wherein the aqueous solution has a pH greater than
 3. 25. The RFB ofclaim 23, further comprising a conduit connecting the first and secondhalf-cells and a flow controller, wherein electrolyte from the secondhalf-cell can circulate through the conduit to the first half-cell toreact with the Zn and wherein the flow controller permits or restrictscirculation through the conduit.
 26. A method for storing electricalenergy in a RFB, the method comprising: Providing an electrical sourceof energy to the RFB; Reducing a M²⁺ electroactive species therebyelectrodepositing M on an electrode in a first half-cell, wherein M²⁺ isa divalent cation of a metal, M; Oxidizing a positive electroactivespecies, I⁻, to yield one or more anions of I_(x) (x≧3) in a secondhalf-cell; and Ceasing the electrical source of energy to preventformation of iodine.
 27. The method of claim 26, wherein the anions ofI_(x) comprise I₃ ⁻.
 28. The method of claim 26, wherein the anions ofI_(x) comprise I₄ ⁻.
 29. The method of claim 26, wherein the anions ofI_(x) comprise I₆ ⁻.
 30. The method of claim 26, wherein the anions ofI_(x) comprise I_(2n+p) ⁻, wherein n and p are positive integers and1≦p≦4.
 31. The method of claim 26, wherein the metal is Zn.
 32. Themethod of claim 26, further comprising yielding an energy density (basedon the positive electrolyte) greater than 60 Wh/L.